Who did the ‘kisser’ kiss?

In Old Russia from the 15th to the 18th centuries, there was a special category of elected officials – the ‘tselovalniki’ (‘kissers’; from the word ‘tselovat’ or ‘to kiss’). They got their name from the oath-taking ceremony: upon taking office, a person would swear an oath on the cross and kiss it as a sign of sincerity. In the culture of that time, this was considered the ultimate guarantee of honesty, so ‘tselovalniki’ were treated with trust – after all, they had made a promise before God.

First mentions in laws and chronicles

The earliest references to ‘tselovalniki’ are found in the 1497 ‘Sudebnik’ – the main code of laws of the time. There, they are described as participants in court hearings conducted by the prince's governors. A chronicle from 1508 reports that the grand prince, wishing to prevent injustice, ordered the ‘tiuns’ (that is, judges) to hear cases together with the ‘tselovalniki’  – four people for each month. Thus, they were originally conceived as representatives of the people, tasked with ensuring the integrity of the prince’s officials.

In the first half of the 16th century, towns and rural districts were granted the right to elect ‘tselovalniki’ to help combat banditry. Following the local government reform of 1555, their responsibilities expanded significantly. In many places, they even replaced the princely governors and became full-fledged local authorities. For their service, they received a small stipend from their constituents.

What did the ‘tselovalniki’ do?

Their duties were very diverse: collecting taxes, duties and other state revenues; participating in court hearings and ensuring the fairness of sentences; and maintaining public order, including apprehending thieves and bandits. Depending on their area of activity, several types were distinguished. Lip ‘tselovalniki’ helped combat banditry. They were selected among wealthy peasants capable of assuming responsibility.

Zemstvo ‘tselovalniki’ worked alongside the district elders (representatives of the people), overseeing general administration and local courts. Customs ‘tselovalniki’ collected trade duties. Tavern ‘tselovalniki’ sold alcohol in taverns and monitored alcohol sales; when sworn in, they swore never to dilute vodka.

The term of service was usually one year and the work was quite arduous; it was considered a civic duty and was poorly paid or not paid at all. Refusing the position was almost impossible –  doing so was considered a crime against the state. The responsibility was enormous: the authorities demanded that the collected sums be no less than the previous year's – and preferably more. If a ‘tselovalnik’ fell short of his required amount, the shortfall was recovered from him personally. And, sometimes, they would beat him on the legs with sticks until he "figured out" a way to get the money.

However, the ‘tselovalniki’ also found certain advantages in their position. For peasants, it was a way to buy their way out of more onerous obligations (such as conscription). For merchants, it was a chance to curry favor with the tsar and obtain a royal charter that granted trade privileges (exemption from other duties). They took this risk for the sake of future profit and proximity to power.

In the 17th century, the autonomy of the ‘tselovalniki’ gradually came to an end. They came under the authority of the ‘voivodes’ (equivalent to a mayor or governor), who were appointed by the tsar.

Peter I’s reforms in the early 18th century dealt the final blow to the profession. Only the tavern ‘tselovalniki’ remained, but even they were soon replaced by merchants’ hired employees. However, the name stuck: in the second half of the 19th century and early 20th century, salespeople in wine stores were still called ‘tselovalniki’.